Breakbulk Cargo and Shipping
Breakbulk defined and compared with bulk and containers, with the ships used, a stowage factor example, contract terms, securing and project planning.
Breakbulk is cargo handled as individual pieces or bundles rather than in a container, lifted aboard by crane, then stowed and secured in the hold. Steel coils, timber bundles, paper reels, bags, drums, machinery and wind turbine blades are all typical. It differs from bulk cargo, which is poured or conveyed into the hold as a mass, and from containerised cargo, which travels inside a standard unit. Handling cost per tonne and time in port generally run higher than for containers, yet for some cargoes there is simply no alternative.
Breakbulk, Bulk and Project Cargo
Dry sea cargo is classified by packaging and handling method. The lines between classes are not fixed, and the same commodity may move in different ways at different times.
| Cargo class | Handling | Examples | Typical ship |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bulk | Loose, by conveyor or grab | Iron ore, coal, grain | Bulk carrier |
| Neo-bulk | Regular, standard parcels of unitised cargo | Steel, timber, paper | Open-hatch or multipurpose ship |
| Breakbulk | Piece by piece, on pallets, in bundles or crates | Coils, bags, crates, machinery | Multipurpose ship |
| Project cargo | Heavy, oversized pieces with a dedicated plan | Turbines, reactors, transformers | Heavy-lift ship |
| Container | Inside a standard box | Manufactured goods | Container ship |
Calling breakbulk "whatever will not fit in a box" misses part of the picture, since cargo that fits perfectly well can still go breakbulk. Steel coil is the standard example. Its weight strains a container's floor and payload limits, and for a sizeable parcel a ship's hold often works out cheaper. The decision usually rests on cost more than dimensions.
How Containers Reshaped the Trade
Until the 1950s most dry general cargo moved in the form now called breakbulk. On 26 April 1956 the converted T2 tanker Ideal X left Newark for Houston with 58 35-foot containers on board.[1] In the following decades containerisation cut labour and waiting time in port, and the greater part of general cargo moved into boxes.
The breakbulk market survived. Small ports without container services, heavy pieces that no box can take and energy projects all keep it alive, and cargo moves in both directions between the two markets. High container freight can pull some cargo back to breakbulk, and multipurpose ships take containers when the box market pays well.[2]
Ships That Carry Breakbulk
The workhorse is the multipurpose vessel (MPV), with its own cranes, wide hatches and hatch covers strong enough to take cargo. Those cranes allow it to work in ports with no shore equipment.[2] Heavy-lift ships extend the same idea. AAL's order for new 32,000 dwt vessels, for example, specified three cranes with a combined lift of 700 tonnes.[2]
Semi-submersible ships take on structures too large to lift by floating them over a submerged deck. Ordinary bulk carriers can load steel or timber in their holds. Ro-ro vessels drive wheeled or trailer-mounted cargo up a ramp, and container ships use flat racks and open-top units for out-of-gauge pieces. The choice comes down to weight, dimensions and port equipment. The maritime transport guide gives the wider picture of ship types.
Stowage Factor and Freight
The stowage factor measures the hold space occupied by one tonne of cargo, in cubic metres per tonne or cubic feet per tonne. One cubic metre is roughly 35.3 cubic feet.[3] It tells the planner whether a parcel will exhaust the ship's weight capacity or its volume first.
A crate of 4.20 cubic metres weighing 2.73 tonnes has a stowage factor of 4.20 / 2.73 = 1.54 cubic metres per tonne. Dense ore comes in at about 15 cubic feet per tonne or less, and bulk corn at around 50.[3] Breakbulk also loses space to broken stowage: irregular shapes, the curve of the hull, pillars and separation materials all leave volume that cannot be used, and the loss matters more here than with any other kind of cargo.[3]
Freight therefore tends to be charged on weight or measure (W/M), whichever is greater, and the freight guide has a worked example. Who pays for handling depends on the terms. Under liner terms, loading and discharging are generally included in the freight, subject to tariff, port custom and contract wording. Under FIO (free in and out), these costs fall on the charterer. Variants such as FIOS and FIOST extend this to stowage and trimming, and because these abbreviations are used loosely, the contract wording should always be checked.[4]
On the sale side, FOB, CFR, CIF and FAS were written with non-containerised sea cargo in mind, as the Incoterms guide explains.
A Hold Planning Example
Planners check a stow against both weight and volume. Assume a ship that can lift 12,000 tonnes with 18,000 cubic metres of hold space, loading steel coils and paper reels.
| Cargo | Weight (t) | Stowage factor (m³/t) | Volume needed (m³) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Steel coils | 8,000 | 0.5 | 4,000 |
| Paper reels | 4,000 | 2.5 | 10,000 |
| Total | 12,000 | 14,000 |
The weight limit is fully used, and volume looks comfortable at 14,000 of 18,000 cubic metres. Allow 10% for broken stowage, though, and the requirement grows to about 15,400. Keeping paper away from moisture and oil and placing dense cargo low in the ship also affects the plan, since heavy pieces stowed low help stability.
Stowage, Lashing and Safety
The central technical concern is keeping the cargo still. A piece that slides or topples in the hold damages itself and the ship, and can affect stability. The international framework comes from IMO instruments: SOLAS chapters VI and VII deal with cargo safety, the CSS Code (Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing) covers stowage and securing practice, and separate guidelines address the preparation of the Cargo Securing Manual.[5]
Practical securing relies on chocks, chains, wire, welded stoppers and dunnage, and this material and labour is a cost of its own. Lifting gear has limits too. Each appliance must stay within its certified safe working load, and two derricks working together have a combined safe load lower than the sum of their individual ratings.[3] More handling per piece also means more chances of damage, which insurers take into account.
Planning Project Cargo
Project cargo means the components of a power station, refinery or wind farm. A single shipment may need its own engineering work: lift plans, centre of gravity calculations, deck strength checks, road permits and weather windows. The final overland leg can take longer than the voyage.
In undeveloped areas, a heavy-lift quay may have to be built, or a towed floating crane may handle pieces in shallow water. The floating crane reduces port investment at the price of greater dependence on weather and sea state. A heavy-lift ship with powerful gear is often chosen for the same reason.
Energy investment and fleet age are two forces on this market. Operators quoted in 2021 described the multipurpose fleet as ageing and in need of replacement, with offshore wind work creating demand for heavy-lift capacity.[2] The choice of fuel has become part of these newbuilding decisions as well.
Frequently asked questions
What is breakbulk?
Breakbulk is cargo handled as individual pieces or bundles rather than in a container, lifted aboard by crane, then stowed and secured in the hold.
Is breakbulk the same as general cargo?
The terms overlap heavily. General cargo is the older and broader expression, and breakbulk is the one more common in current trade press.
Is project cargo the same as breakbulk?
Project cargo is a subset made up of heavy, oversized pieces. It requires a dedicated plan and often a heavy-lift ship.
Why not ship steel coils in containers?
It can be done, but the weight strains container limits and needs special securing. As parcels grow, a ship's hold becomes more economical.
Sources
- Transport Geography. First Containership, Ideal-X, 1956.
- The Loadstar. AAL Opts for Multipurpose Newbuilds Despite Lucrative Demand for Boxes, October 2021.
- Handybulk. Cargo Stowage and Handling in Shipping: Stowage Factors, Ventilation, Bulk Cargo, Cargo Gear and Hold Preparation; Maritime Safety Innovation Lab. Breakbulk.
- Handybulk. FIO (Free In and Out) in Ship Chartering.
- IMO. Cargoes, list of mandatory and non-mandatory instruments.
